In Iban society, a man’s position within the social hierarchy is indicated by his role as Tuai Rumah (longhouse chief), who is respected for his leadership, wisdom, and ability to mediate conflicts. Men who have proven themselves in battles or ngayau (headhunting) expeditions are also highly esteemed, gaining status through bravery and accomplishment.
For women, social distinction follows a different path, often linked to spiritual and cultural mastery. Some women’s journeys are guided by the Goddess Kumang, who delivers visions through dreams, marking them as heroines within the weaving tradition. In the Iban community, only women highly skilled in weaving, particularly pua kumbu and Tikai Buah, are recognised as culturally significant.
According to Hidayati (2017), Iban women have long taught weaving skills directly to their daughters. Proficiency in weaving is essential, as many cloths are required for traditional and religious ceremonies. Mastering weaving involves a long and challenging learning process that begins around the age of thirteen. Girls are taught every step, from processing cotton, spinning thread, and dyeing, to selecting designs. As they mature, they learn additional rituals to strengthen their connection with ancestral spirits through weaving.
If a girl is not prepared to fulfill this role, especially in developing her spiritual connection with ancestors, she may fail and become layu’ (an illness that can be fatal). The results of Iban weaving are diverse, with the most important being the Pua kumbu, a blanket for men that is also used in traditional ceremonies. A Pua typically measures about two and a half meters in length and nearly one and a half meters in width.
Iban designs are usually woven into textiles and often serve as storytelling mediums that preserve Iban history, cosmology, and spiritual beliefs. The motifs are generally symmetrical and can be classified into several main types:
The first type is mythical and spiritual motifs, considered the most sacred and “potent.” These often require highly experienced weavers due to associated spiritual taboos. Examples include Engkaramba, humanoid figures representing deities, spirits, or ancestors, often depicted with outstretched arms and legs to protect against evil spirits; Nabau, the giant snake or dragon, symbolizing power and spirituality; Baya, the crocodile, invoking protection and reflecting the animal’s revered status; Buah Remaung, depicting the clouded leopard or tiger, a rare and highly respected motif symbolizing mythical beasts; and Tiang Ranyai, representing shamanic trees of life or ceremonial poles, used in festivals to create sacred spaces.
The second type is flora and fauna motifs, inspired by the immediate natural environment and abstracted elements of the Sarawak jungle. This includes botanical designs such as ferns and tendrils called bunga tangkai, as well as animal and insect motifs like birds, leeches, snakes, centipedes, squirrels, and frogs. Fruit motifs such as Buah Bangkit are also common and hold cultural significance.
The third type is geometric and symbolic motifs, which often appear alongside other designs. The bulan (moon) is commonly used in border designs, while bintang (stars) appear on sirat (loincloths) and other textiles. Intricate hooks and coil patterns are woven to fill spaces between larger motifs, adding depth and complexity to the overall design.
To signify prowess, the Iban mark the body with tattoos (pantang or kalingai). Men who participate in ngayau receive tattoos according to specific designs, believed to be visible to the gods as recognition by the spiritual world.
Women, however, do not earn tattoos through combat; instead, they are honoured for their role in the “women’s war” (kayau indu’), a spiritually demanding practice where red dyes and intense focus could attract spirits. Women’s tattoos are typically placed on the arms and hands, marking their weaving skill, dedication, and spiritual attunement.
Only women skilled in weaving pua kumbu and Tikai Buah are recognised, earning the tattoo Pala Tumpa, featuring Kala (scorpion) and Kemebai (centipede) motifs carved from the wrist to the elbow. Pala Tumpa is inherited matrilineally, passed from grandmother to mother and then to daughter, with the requirement that weaving skills are also transmitted until she becomes an expert. Iban girls with Pala Tumpa tattoos hold a higher social status than ordinary women, who are known as Indu Takar or Indu Gaar (Anak Anggo & Laja, 2018).
According to my mother, the meaning of Indu Takar and Indu Gaar includes: indu landik, tau mungkal, tau engkebang, nemu ngaga kediri pengawa Iban kelia, nemu beranyam, nemu ngaga pua kumbu.
Essentially, it signifies that these women are intelligent and independent, the guardians of Iban heritage who preserve the culture through their mastery of weaving the Pua Kumbu.
In Iban cosmology, human life is closely connected to the world of the gods, menoa petara, with the universe divided into mensia (humans) and antu/petara (spirits). Interaction between humans and spirits occurs constantly through burong (augury), piring (sacrificial acts), and mimpi (dreams) (Magiman et al., 2018).
Iban women are highly imaginative, guided and inspired by the gods, serving as hidden heroes of their society.
They wage symbolic battles in the spiritual realm to protect and preserve the essence of Iban culture.
Their weaving is not merely a tradition or craft; it is a profound artistic expression and a living testament to their heritage.
Every detail is intricate in shape and meticulous in each strand, showcasing a creative side that may seem foreign to outsiders.
Through their skill, creativity and spiritual dedication, they sustain the cultural memory of the community, shaping the identity, values and continuity of the Iban people.
In every thread of the pua kumbu, their stories, struggles, and triumphs are woven, making their artistry the very foundation upon which the Iban community stands.
For further reading:
Explore the story of the nearly 300-year-old pua kumbu and the mysticism that surrounds it in these articles:
The making of a 300-year-old pua kumbu “Akik Ungkuk” and its promise of protection and victory — DayakDaily:
https://dayakdaily.com/the-making-of-300yo-pua-kumbu-akik-ungkuk-promises-victory-for-iban-womans-husband-at-war/
Want to see a 300-year-old pua kumbu? — Sarawak Tribune: https://www.sarawaktribune.com/want-to-see-a-300-year-old-pua-kumbu/#google_vignette
Discover how women in Kalimantan, Indonesia are keeping the tradition of pua kumbu weaving alive, weaving culture and history into every thread:
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